Geoffrey Chaucer was born in the reign of Edward III, lived through the rule of Richard II and died in the year after Henry IV ascended the throne. His life, therefore, represents a period of rapid social and political change. Certain other factors—the wars, plagues, famines, revolts, reform etc—left the English society with contrasting features. Thus we notice growth of patriotic nationalism as well as of social and political unrest, rise of new chivalry as well as the persistence with the old ethics, movements for reform as well as height of corruption among the nobility and the clergy. Many powerful trends under the influence of the Renaissance humanism were also introduced. These were the religious freedom and the spread of knowledge among the common people. This spread of learning was in the language that the common people understood very well. Hence the development of “English” language and learning stands out as the main features of Chaucer’s age. Chaucer’s own writings, specially of the last phase of his life, represent these developments fully well. That is why, Chaucer can rightly be called the representative of his age because he gives us a near complete description of the above mentioned conditions.
Chaucer’s writings are numerous and show the range of his learning to the maximum. Besides vast knowledge, they also reflect his experience of life which he had gone through. In his works, we find the themes and characters which are a direct product of his close contact with the English society and the learning of his age. He had visited Italy as an ambassador, served in the army, and had performed duties as a page, forester etc. Here and there we notice the impacts of his many-sided personality in his poetry.
Chaucer wrote in three phases/periods; the French, the Italian and the English. In his youth, he had close association with the nobility and the court. These classes were interested in the French poetry and romances because of their civilized setting. He wrote Roman de la Rose by translating a French romance. He also wrote and allegory, the Boke of Duchesse on the death of Balanch, wife of Chaucer’s master, John Gaunt. Both these works are based on French models. After his visits to Italy, Chaucer started imitating the great Italian masters. His “House of Fame” has the clear influence of Dante. “Troylus and Cryseyde” is based upon and partly a translation of Boccaccio’s Filostrato. Another important poem of this period is the unfinished Legende of Good Women. To the English period, belong some minor poems alongwith Chaucer’s real and most remarkable contribution “The Canterbury Tales”. This poem is not only original in its concept but also a true mirror of Chaucer’s times. In writing this long poem, Chaucer wanted to put together all the popular tales of the previous as well as contemporary ages. The framework adopted by him is also genuinely “English” specially the idea of the pilgrimage and the selection of the characters which tell these tales. It is however, the Prologue, the introduction of this poem which gives us a true picture of the Chaucerian English through the character introduced in it. These characters are discussed in detail. We find everything about them; their appearance, habits, nature of profession, even the style of travelling and talking. They belong to various groups and classes, the chivalry, aristocracy, clergy, worksmen etc. These characters not only represent their individual personalities but also the whole manners of their respective groups and classes. The Prologue has rightly been called the picture-gallery of medieval England. Technically also the whole design of the Prologue and the Tales show the maturity of the new style of writing, specially including the element of dramatic interest and finished characterization. Chaucer’s view of the conditions of his society can be found in the very manner of arranging the tales. He begins with the Knight’s Tale which has theme of earthly love and chivalry. Chaucer closes his work with the Parson’s Tale, which preaches divine love and moral consciousness. Therefore, we can safely claim that Chaucer was not only aware of all the characters and conditions of his age but also tried, quite successfully, to portray everything in totality.
There are also certain points which negate Chaucer’s claim to be regarded as the representative of his age. Primarily, he was interested in art for the sake of art, or at best art for the sake of entertainment of the nobility. He did not write for the general public. That is why, the problems of the masses—the plagues, the famines, deprivation caused by wars, revolts and social unrest—hardly find any place in his poetry. Although he hints at these incidents in his works, yet he does not prescribe any solution to these problems of his times. Thus he remains indifferent and does not openly give his own judgment.
To his credit, however, remains the fact that he introduced the spirit of Renaissance in the realm of English literature. His focus in the Canterbury Tales is the humans and not the imaginary and outlandish princes and knights that we find in the romances and folk tales. Another distinguished characteristic of his poetry is the fresh and realistic approach to nature. Although his view of country life is quite traditional, his description of the spring scenery in the Prologue and the Knight’s Tales is highly personal and novel. As far as the form and diction of his poetry is concerned, his language may seem difficult to the modern reader but it suits his poetry very well. It is not only beautiful but also melodious. It was also under his influence that English verse became completely free of alliteration and in its place, French rime became fashionable.
Although Chaucer is the most prominent figure of his age, certain other poets also are of great importance. First among them is Chaucer’s friend John Gower (1332-1408). Gower lacks the element of interest, clarity and charm which are feature of Chaucer’s poetry, although he wrote too much. It is also noticeable that Gower wrote his best poems in three major languages i.e. in French (Speculum Meditantis) in Latin (Vox Clamantis) and in English (Confessio Amantis). In Confessio Amantis, there are tales to illustrate the evils caused by the seven deadly sins. Gower, unlike Chaucer, presents a gloomy picture of the conditions of his times. His poems involve sharp criticism on the corruption among the clergy. Vox Clamantis discusses Wat Tyler’s revolt. He was a conservative and does not seem to sympathize with Wydiff and Lollard in their quest for religious reformation. Another important poet of the age was William Langland (1336-1400). His poem, “The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman” is an allegory of 15,000 lines. It is confused and formless but under the conventional device of dream, represents the social and religious conditions of his time. He exposes the corruption of the clergy, the greed of the landlords. Though he was not a reformer of religion and politics, he has portrayed the miseries of the masses. Although written for the people, its language is strikingly rustic and old-fashioned and it follows the Anglo-Saxon alliteration, the last English poem to do so. In Scotland, John Barbour (1316-95) wrote the long poem “The Brus” in which he describes the great deeds of Robert Bruce in a spirited narrative.
In prose, the Age of Chaucer remains quite barren. The translation of the Bible by Wyclif makes use of a vigorous artless English. His pamphlets are significant in the sense that in these, English has been used for theological discussion. Previously only Latin was considered fit for this purpose. The Travels of Sir John Maundeville is another important work in prose. Maundeville is said to be born in St. Albans although it has no certain proof. His “Travels” starting in 1322 cover long distances, from the Holy Land to the Far East, quite impossible in those times. It is, therefore, believed that the accounts of Pliny, Friar Odoric and Marco Polo have been compiled by some unknown French author who also gave these accounts a touch of fabulous stories. From him, it was rendered into English and without regard to its originality, it remains the first English prose classic.
The age of Chaucer, therefore, is dominated by poetry. Poets of various rank and background give us a useful picture of their times. Although they vary in form and style, they have shown a considerable measure of originality and realism which are two great contributions of the medieval writers. Chaucer, owing to his emphasis on “the English” and “the human” is a largely a true embodiment of the spirit of his age.
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