In the poetics, Aristotle devotes considerable attention to an examination of the nature, structure and constituent elements of the ideal tragic plot. Tragedy is the representation of action: and action consists of incidents and events. Plot is the arrangement or organization of these incidents and events, and without it there is no coherence and hence no tragic effect. We notice a strong predilection towards cause and effect in Aristotle, from which arises this insistence on continuity, plausibility and visible links between various parts of the story. A fantastic, piecemeal jumble of incidents would be unlikely to arouse any pity-fear feeling, or in fact, any feeling other than confusion and irritation. Modern drama has sometimes ignored this rule deliberately, experimenting with the so-called ‘philosophies’ of confusion or absurdity, but the experiments have not usually succeeded in finding consistent votaries. Of course, there is a general movement away from plot towards character in the evolution of western drama, and ‘character’ is plot has sometimes been asserted about the productions of dramatists like Ibsen. Since then, with the introduction of closed halls, good lighting and acoustics, the possibilities in this direction have improved immensely.
Even so, it is probable that Aristotle’s observation still holds true character without plot would produce no drama. The plot is a cause and effect succession, and clearly it has to be a limited one, otherwise the succession could continue to infinity in either direction. In presenting the life history of some person, the dramatist is forced to confine his writings to a selected portion of that person’s life. Aristotle’s rule for making such a selection is that the action should have a beginning, a middle and an end; the beginning is that which is not obviously linked with some proceeding episode, the ending is that which is not linked with some preceding episode, the ending is that which is not linked with anything coming after it, and the middle is that which is linked with both the beginning and the end.
This is necessitated by the limitations imposed by the capacity of the audience to comprehend and sit comfortably through a dramatic performance. If the play is too long, the audience will tend to forget the beginning and will not be able to conceive of it as a whole. If it is too short, it will have little impact and significance.
The plot should be as significant as time and audience-appreciation will allow. The more massive the plot, the more telling will be its effect, and the greater the achievement of tragic magnitude. For the same reason, the plot should be complex rather than simple, allowing for richness and diversity of action within the main framework.
The Unities:
The plot should have unity. This has been a point of debate among critics, but it is now generally agreed that the only kind of unity on which Aristotle insists is that of action, which once again really means that the plot should have recognizable, plausible links leading logically from the beginning, through the middle, to the end. He has mentioned elsewhere that it would be better if the action of the play could be limited to the movement of the sun, which could be interpreted either as twelve hours or as twenty-four, but this statement, thrown off casually as a desirable value, should never have become an authority for the ‘rule’ of the unity of time, as it did later. The third unity that of place, can muster little support in Aristotle’s text, but it is implicit in the forgoing observations. Obviously, unity of place will make achievement of unity of action easier.
To have the conduct hopping from one part of the world to the other would break up the continuity as well as strain the credibility of the audience. Yet, against this, it is fair to state that both in matters of time and place, the audience is capable of stretching a point without effort. No sense of incongruity is felt when the whole life-time of a man is compressed into a performance three hours long or if part of the action takes place in Islamabad and the other in Lahore, London or anywhere.
Peripety and Discovery:
Two other elements are introduced as desirable additions to the plot. One is peripety or the ironic twist: the hero should be shown as expecting one thing and in fact gaining something else. The example given is that of Oedipus, who, in desiring to hear the truth about his antecedents from Tiresius, something which he probably thought would help him to get peace of mind, brings about the tragedy which engulfs his whole family. The other is discovery, in which the identity of a person, hitherto disguised or hidden, is revealed to the other characters. Both peripety and discovery are within the action of the play, that is, the characters that are expected not to have the knowledge which the audience has. The ironic twist in Oedipus is no ironic twist for the audience, which knows fully well what will happen. Likewise, unless the tragedist wishes to introduce an element of mystery into his play, a disguised character is only disguised for the other characters in the play, not for the playgoers. There is a special kind of anticipatory excitement in waiting for the reaction of man on the stage to something which is new for him but not for us. All this helps to build up the emotions in the audience so that by the time the unraveling of the play takes place the mixed bag of emotions contribute one to the other to cause the feelings of pity and fear to boil over and wash away.
The denouement:
While devising their plots, the poets should take great care to make their denouements or ‘resolutions’ effective and successful. Unraveling of the plot should be done, naturally and logically, and not by the use of arbitrary devices, like chance, supernatural intervention, etc. “Gods should intervene only where it became necessary to explain the past, or announce future events external to the action.” Aristotle does not regard Poetic Justice as essential for Tragedy. According to him it is more in keeping with the spirit of comedy. Poetic Justice implies that rewards and punishments are meted out according to the deserts of the dramatic personages, while the essence of tragedy is that suffering is far in excess of the fault or error of the hero.
Thursday, December 24, 2009
BACKGROUND OF 3RD VOYAGE
In this voyage, Gulliver has gone to an unknown land “LUPUTA”. In this voyage, Gulliver has ridiculed the academies of England. In the first two voyages, he is satirizing the human beings and in this voyage, he is satirizing the institutes and it is quite interesting and deeply concerning with 18th century because that was the age of science.
Royal academy of sciences has been established at that time. It was an age of James I, who said that there should be some progress and advancement in science. They requested Hobbes to establish an academy of science. Hobbes was a great philosopher. The greatest qualification of Hobbes is that he was the secretary of Sir Francis Bacon.
Here Swift is trying to give us two theories. He is talking about the use of science and research on science. The good approach towards science is scientific approach but science which is used for the sake of science is not science.
Swift belongs to the 18th century which is in the first place in as age of reason and in 2nd place; it is an age of utility. These are the utilitarian people. They believe that no useless activities are good activities. Every activity must be purposeful. Science is not hair splitting. Science is not knowledge for the sake of science. Science is purposeful knowledge, meaningful knowledge. All knowledge or extra ordinary knowledge is not good.
‘Laputa”. if we see in the map is flying in the air, therefore, it is the parody of the seat of government, kings live in Laputa. It also represents London. And the place “Balnibarbi” lying under this flying area represents the common people or the area where the king govern (England). The whole map is build on the scientific rules.
VOYAGE TO LAPUTA
As Gulliver went at that island, he saw some strange faces which he had never seen before. Their physical features were as same as that of Gulliver but their faces were quite strange looking.
Gulliver said:
“I must in their debt; having never till then seen a race of mortals so singular in their shapes, habits and countenances”.
This strange condition of them was due to their deeper interest in science and making more and more experiments which were out of any use, not for the sake of mankind but for the wastage of time. They had destroyed their personal lives in the researches of science. Gulliver said:
“Their heads were all reclined to the right, or to the left; one of their eye turned inward, and the other directly up to the Zenith.”
This was the miserable condition of the scientist of that time. They were only and only indulged in their studies and had left their own life. Here we can say that knowledge is a very good thing but it should not be at the expense of life.
Actually, there must be a balance between the intellectualism and physical life. This kind of knowledge in which man had no care about his own personality is of no use. Science is used for mankind and if man is not getting any advantage, or if he, for the sake of science, neglects himself, that kind of knowledge and science is of no use.
Another defect of these scientific men were that they lack common sense. We can take the example of the tailor. He took measurement of each and every part of his body but only due to a small mistake in calculation, the whole dress was destroyed.
They were so such busy in their scientific experiments that they even had ignored their wives and daughters. Their family members were lamenting on their ignorance towards their homes. And even making flirt in front of their eyes. But they, not caring of any thing or any of their responsibility, were only found busy in their own scientism.
The scientists found at that place were very weak. Their condition was very strange and miserable. They were all busy in purposeless research, Gulliver said:
“The first man I saw was of a meager aspect, with sooty hands and face, his hair and beard long, ragged and singed in several places. His clothes, shirt, and skin were all of the same colour.”
This way of seeking knowledge and science is of no use. The scientist about which Gulliver is talking, is found in a very bad condition. He had no care about his own life. Therefore, knowledge should not be at the expense of life. It is for the sake of life, for the betterment of humanity, but here knowledge is used for the sake of science.
The next point, pointed out by Gulliver is that the experiments they are doing, are of no uses but just wastage of time and resources.
For example:
• One of the scientist had been on a project for extracting sun beams out of cucumber since eight years.
• One scientist is busy at the work to calcine ice into gun-powder.
• One architect who had contrived a new method for building houses, by beginning at the roof, and working down words to the foundation.
• Three professors were sitting together with the consultation to shorten discourse by cutting poly syllabus into one, and leaving out verbs and participles.
Then he went to the section of magicians in the academy. They were also making wrong works and searching on how to long and long. Some who have been successful are also of no use. Gulliver said:
“As soon they have completed the term of eighty years, they are looked on as dead in law.”
In the same way, at one more place he said:
“At ninety they lose their teeth and hair, they have at that age no distinction of taste, but eat and drink whatever they can get without relish or appetite.”
Therefore, this was the unfavourable condition of the institutions found at that age. Scientists were busy for the sake of scientism than that of science.
Royal academy of sciences has been established at that time. It was an age of James I, who said that there should be some progress and advancement in science. They requested Hobbes to establish an academy of science. Hobbes was a great philosopher. The greatest qualification of Hobbes is that he was the secretary of Sir Francis Bacon.
Here Swift is trying to give us two theories. He is talking about the use of science and research on science. The good approach towards science is scientific approach but science which is used for the sake of science is not science.
Swift belongs to the 18th century which is in the first place in as age of reason and in 2nd place; it is an age of utility. These are the utilitarian people. They believe that no useless activities are good activities. Every activity must be purposeful. Science is not hair splitting. Science is not knowledge for the sake of science. Science is purposeful knowledge, meaningful knowledge. All knowledge or extra ordinary knowledge is not good.
‘Laputa”. if we see in the map is flying in the air, therefore, it is the parody of the seat of government, kings live in Laputa. It also represents London. And the place “Balnibarbi” lying under this flying area represents the common people or the area where the king govern (England). The whole map is build on the scientific rules.
VOYAGE TO LAPUTA
As Gulliver went at that island, he saw some strange faces which he had never seen before. Their physical features were as same as that of Gulliver but their faces were quite strange looking.
Gulliver said:
“I must in their debt; having never till then seen a race of mortals so singular in their shapes, habits and countenances”.
This strange condition of them was due to their deeper interest in science and making more and more experiments which were out of any use, not for the sake of mankind but for the wastage of time. They had destroyed their personal lives in the researches of science. Gulliver said:
“Their heads were all reclined to the right, or to the left; one of their eye turned inward, and the other directly up to the Zenith.”
This was the miserable condition of the scientist of that time. They were only and only indulged in their studies and had left their own life. Here we can say that knowledge is a very good thing but it should not be at the expense of life.
Actually, there must be a balance between the intellectualism and physical life. This kind of knowledge in which man had no care about his own personality is of no use. Science is used for mankind and if man is not getting any advantage, or if he, for the sake of science, neglects himself, that kind of knowledge and science is of no use.
Another defect of these scientific men were that they lack common sense. We can take the example of the tailor. He took measurement of each and every part of his body but only due to a small mistake in calculation, the whole dress was destroyed.
They were so such busy in their scientific experiments that they even had ignored their wives and daughters. Their family members were lamenting on their ignorance towards their homes. And even making flirt in front of their eyes. But they, not caring of any thing or any of their responsibility, were only found busy in their own scientism.
The scientists found at that place were very weak. Their condition was very strange and miserable. They were all busy in purposeless research, Gulliver said:
“The first man I saw was of a meager aspect, with sooty hands and face, his hair and beard long, ragged and singed in several places. His clothes, shirt, and skin were all of the same colour.”
This way of seeking knowledge and science is of no use. The scientist about which Gulliver is talking, is found in a very bad condition. He had no care about his own life. Therefore, knowledge should not be at the expense of life. It is for the sake of life, for the betterment of humanity, but here knowledge is used for the sake of science.
The next point, pointed out by Gulliver is that the experiments they are doing, are of no uses but just wastage of time and resources.
For example:
• One of the scientist had been on a project for extracting sun beams out of cucumber since eight years.
• One scientist is busy at the work to calcine ice into gun-powder.
• One architect who had contrived a new method for building houses, by beginning at the roof, and working down words to the foundation.
• Three professors were sitting together with the consultation to shorten discourse by cutting poly syllabus into one, and leaving out verbs and participles.
Then he went to the section of magicians in the academy. They were also making wrong works and searching on how to long and long. Some who have been successful are also of no use. Gulliver said:
“As soon they have completed the term of eighty years, they are looked on as dead in law.”
In the same way, at one more place he said:
“At ninety they lose their teeth and hair, they have at that age no distinction of taste, but eat and drink whatever they can get without relish or appetite.”
Therefore, this was the unfavourable condition of the institutions found at that age. Scientists were busy for the sake of scientism than that of science.
A VOYAGE TO BROADINGNAG
This voyage is known as the microscopic view of man. The human beings, their actions, behaviour, merits and demerits are seen from very near. Throughout this voyage, by drawing out different sketches of examples, Swift informs us that man is helpless in this powerful world.
In this voyage Gulliver is six feet tall where as the people of Borgdingnag are of 72 feet. Gulliver looks very small in front of them. People of that place were feeling very much strange to see Gulliver because he is not even the size of pigmy. Even pigmy of that area was of 30 feet. When the farmer saw him, he talked with him but the voice the farmer, Gulliver said, “voice pierced my ears like that of a water-mill.” But when in reply Gulliver talked him, his voice was so weak that it could not reach to farmer’s ear. He did great effort but in vain.
By drawing sketch of this example, Swift wants to say that human beings are helpless. Especially Gulliver represents that human beings of lower status, small in size and insignificant in the hands of those big people of Brobdingnag, who represent the upper class or the people of high status.
One more concept also comes before us through this point in which ‘Gulliver is represented as the subject of a country and the huge farmer represented the king or the government. In this way it is seen that what ever the people shout or cry is of no use and value for the government.
The next point where Gulliver is feeling himself weak and helpless is, “In the midst of dinner my Mistress’s favourite cat leap into her lap. I heard a noise behind me like that of a dozen stocking weavers at work, and turning my head, I found it proceeded from the purring of this animal.”
This time again Swift is talking about the helplessness of human beings. He has no power but still he thinks that he is the terror of universe.
The incident in which the mother took Gulliver with love and gave him to his son and the son took Gulliver in his mouth; at that time again he felt that how small the man is. He is a creature of no value in the big hands.
As Gulliver was a unique personality among the people of Borbdingnag, different people from different places came to see him and he was presented as a toy and has to do what was said to him by his master (king of Borbdingnag).
This indicates that small people or the poor people or the people without power are like toys in the hands of the powerful men or the government.
In third chapter of this voyage Swift is talking about the filthiness of man. The entire body and all the features of the body are filled with filth and dirtiness.
He even uses the word “Relplum Scalcath”, said by the doctor of Borbdingnag, which means joke of nature. This is the pathetic condition of man that he is known as the joke of nature.
Then Swift talks about the absence of moral values. People have no moral values. All morality is for the relatives. This is a satire on the morality of Swift’s age. All virtues are for the relatives not for the strangers. Morality does not exist and there is no moral.
This allegory is used for the females. Swift says that female body is a very ugly spectacle.
Swift also says that man is not safe from anything. He has dangers from everything. Stating the condition of Gulliver, he said that he was not safe from the frog which was found in his bathing tub, he was not safe from the monkey who caught him and climbed up the tree, he was not safe when an eagle took him away in his claws. So, man is not safe any where. He is always in danger.
Swift had stated all these matters in a very interesting and lightly manner. This politeness also relates for Swift’s being a philanthropist.
Then swift talks about the judges and orators who do not perform their duty properly or honestly. He said that they were unjust, vexatious or oppressive.
There are also found a big number of religious and political sects. There is found no unity among all of them.
According to swift, one should be united and firmly connected with each other.
The education must also be reformed. Here Swift said that they had only one thousand books but their rules were good but we are having countless books in library but we have no proper system to derive in the society.
Swift is also against the production of modern and dangerous weapons. According to him, one should research on such a production and should invent such things which prove useful to the humanity but not for their destruction.
The art of government should also be transparent. Nothing should be hidden from the people. If the government is made for the people then why its affairs should be hidden from the people.
Swift also opposes the making of army and the institutions of army. His point of view is that man should not fight and should live peacefully.
Swift also opposes the plenty of death. If a person commits a crime by killing another person, consequently, he should not also be killed but should give some other kind of punishment. One should never kill anyone. He condemns killing any person killing is the most terrible and horrible act near Swift.
In short, in this voyage, Swift has again given the concepts of good life which should scatter in this society, he is trying his best through his writing to reform the society.
In this voyage Gulliver is six feet tall where as the people of Borgdingnag are of 72 feet. Gulliver looks very small in front of them. People of that place were feeling very much strange to see Gulliver because he is not even the size of pigmy. Even pigmy of that area was of 30 feet. When the farmer saw him, he talked with him but the voice the farmer, Gulliver said, “voice pierced my ears like that of a water-mill.” But when in reply Gulliver talked him, his voice was so weak that it could not reach to farmer’s ear. He did great effort but in vain.
By drawing sketch of this example, Swift wants to say that human beings are helpless. Especially Gulliver represents that human beings of lower status, small in size and insignificant in the hands of those big people of Brobdingnag, who represent the upper class or the people of high status.
One more concept also comes before us through this point in which ‘Gulliver is represented as the subject of a country and the huge farmer represented the king or the government. In this way it is seen that what ever the people shout or cry is of no use and value for the government.
The next point where Gulliver is feeling himself weak and helpless is, “In the midst of dinner my Mistress’s favourite cat leap into her lap. I heard a noise behind me like that of a dozen stocking weavers at work, and turning my head, I found it proceeded from the purring of this animal.”
This time again Swift is talking about the helplessness of human beings. He has no power but still he thinks that he is the terror of universe.
The incident in which the mother took Gulliver with love and gave him to his son and the son took Gulliver in his mouth; at that time again he felt that how small the man is. He is a creature of no value in the big hands.
As Gulliver was a unique personality among the people of Borbdingnag, different people from different places came to see him and he was presented as a toy and has to do what was said to him by his master (king of Borbdingnag).
This indicates that small people or the poor people or the people without power are like toys in the hands of the powerful men or the government.
In third chapter of this voyage Swift is talking about the filthiness of man. The entire body and all the features of the body are filled with filth and dirtiness.
He even uses the word “Relplum Scalcath”, said by the doctor of Borbdingnag, which means joke of nature. This is the pathetic condition of man that he is known as the joke of nature.
Then Swift talks about the absence of moral values. People have no moral values. All morality is for the relatives. This is a satire on the morality of Swift’s age. All virtues are for the relatives not for the strangers. Morality does not exist and there is no moral.
This allegory is used for the females. Swift says that female body is a very ugly spectacle.
Swift also says that man is not safe from anything. He has dangers from everything. Stating the condition of Gulliver, he said that he was not safe from the frog which was found in his bathing tub, he was not safe from the monkey who caught him and climbed up the tree, he was not safe when an eagle took him away in his claws. So, man is not safe any where. He is always in danger.
Swift had stated all these matters in a very interesting and lightly manner. This politeness also relates for Swift’s being a philanthropist.
Then swift talks about the judges and orators who do not perform their duty properly or honestly. He said that they were unjust, vexatious or oppressive.
There are also found a big number of religious and political sects. There is found no unity among all of them.
According to swift, one should be united and firmly connected with each other.
The education must also be reformed. Here Swift said that they had only one thousand books but their rules were good but we are having countless books in library but we have no proper system to derive in the society.
Swift is also against the production of modern and dangerous weapons. According to him, one should research on such a production and should invent such things which prove useful to the humanity but not for their destruction.
The art of government should also be transparent. Nothing should be hidden from the people. If the government is made for the people then why its affairs should be hidden from the people.
Swift also opposes the making of army and the institutions of army. His point of view is that man should not fight and should live peacefully.
Swift also opposes the plenty of death. If a person commits a crime by killing another person, consequently, he should not also be killed but should give some other kind of punishment. One should never kill anyone. He condemns killing any person killing is the most terrible and horrible act near Swift.
In short, in this voyage, Swift has again given the concepts of good life which should scatter in this society, he is trying his best through his writing to reform the society.
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